Autism in a Child at School Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Autism in a Child at School - Essay Example These children are often wrongly dismissed by many teachers in ordinary schools as having normal behavioural problems and are not given the special kind of treatment and education that they need. Instead, they are treated just like other kids in most schools leading to poor performance on their part. Many a times, private schools refuse to admit children with autism giving reason that they are ill equipped to deal with autism in the classroom. The handful of schools that admit these special needs children are very expensive and have a limited capacity, meaning they can only accept a limited number of children (Cowly, 2010). It is therefore the mandate of teachers in special needs education and parents with an autistic child to ensure that they acquire quality education and stand a fair chance at life after school, and this is the subject of this research paper. The research discusses in depth different aspects of autism in children in school and is divided into different sections for comprehensiveness. First, it discusses the legal definition of special education needs. The second section talks about the role of the learning support worker/ teaching assistant regarding supporting an autistic child in school. Third, Workplace behaviour policy and procedure in schools that will ensure creation of quality environment for supporting children with autism in schools is discussed. ... Special Education Needs Special Needs Education refers to the process of providing education to students with special needs in the best possible way that recognizes and addresses the individual needs and differences of the students. The achievement of the objectives of this delicate task requires planning of individual and carefully monitored teaching procedures, carefully designed teaching materials and equipment, well thought out settings and any other measures that will help children with special needs to achieve the required level of confidence and self esteem to succeed in school work (Haddon, 2004). There is general agreement between professionals and parents that it takes a lot of hard work to help children with autism get the best out of the classroom. This is because every child with an autism spectrum disorder is unique, with various characteristics and styles of learning. This therefore requires an education curriculum that is wide enough to accommodate the whole spectrum. Effort must therefore be made to create these conditions that are not available in ordinary classrooms. Students with ASD will benefit more in an environment with additional educational services like use of unconventional teaching methodologies; use of technology developed for their aid and auxiliary facilities such resource centers. These measures are what set special education apart from general education, which is the type of learning in education centers for normal children. Special education has in the past been used to refer to a special instruction set or approach meant to enhance the learning process of special need children who are slow learners. Children with autism have however shown a high level of intellectual giftedness that usually surpasses that of ordinary

Case Study Questions Essay Example for Free

Case Study Questions Essay 1. What are the inputs, process, and outputs of UPS’s package tracking system? 2. What technologies are used by UPS? How are these technologies related to UPS’s business strategy? 3. What strategic business objectives do UPS’s information systems address? 4. What would happen if UPS’s information systems were not available? Answer: 1. A. Inputs * Package Information * Customer Information * Destination * Current Location of the parcels B. Process * The data are transmitted to a central computer and stored for retrieval. Data are also organized so that they can be tracked by customer. C. Output * Smart Labels * Signatures of Receiver * Proof of delivery * Receipts 2. Technologies used by UPS * DIAD (Delivery Information Acquisition Device) * Barcode scanning systems * Smart Labels * Wired and Wireless Communication Network (GPRS, CDMA) * Desktop and Central Storage â€Å"Best Services and Lowest Rates† Because of the advance integration of UPS’s technology. It can provide services cheaper and more efficiently. That technology solves problems like logistics and supply chain management, freight forwarding, customs brokerage, mail services. 3. Strategic Business Objectives of UPS’s information systems address * Operational Excellence UPS manage to cut down costs and save M 28 Miles by their truck using advanced technology. * New Products, Services and Business Models The information systems of UPS created new way on how to offer delivery service. It has transformed the way the company gathers information, creating routes etc. * Competitive Advantage UPS had already its operational excellence and New Products, Services and Business Models which means the UPS already gain a competitive advantage. Having this kind of technologies that they use like DIAD made them do things better than their competitors. 4. If UPS’s Information Systems were not available: * Operational costs could be higher. * Millions of gallons of fuel could be burnt. * Millions of miles could be driven. * UPS’s would not be able to track their parcels and deliver them efficiently if these systems were not available. MIS in Action

Improving Youth Livelihood through Institutional Support

Improving Youth Livelihood through Institutional Support Strengthening Technical, Vocational Education and Training Institutions for Improved Livelihood Skills ACRONYMS ANDP Activists Network for Disabled People AYODA Africa Youth Development Association CLHE Candle Light for Health and Education CSS Central and South Somalia DFID Department for International Development DRC Danish Refugee council DRP Disaster Recovery Plan EBT Enterprise- Based Training EC European Commission IAS International Aid Service ICRA Islamic Childrens Rescue agency IBT Institution Based Training IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IICO International Islamic Charitable Organization ILO International Labour Organization IOM International Office of Migration MOE Ministry of Education NFE Non Formal Education NGO Non-Governmental Organization PEER Regional Programme for Education in Emergencies PIDAM Puntland Institute of Development Administration and Management SCD Save the Children, Denmark SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SOSTA Somali Skills Training Association STEO Skills Training Employment Opportunity TVE Technical and Vocational Education TVET Technical and Vocational Education Training UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund VTC Vocational Training Centre WFL Water for Life WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization US AID US Agency for International Development Fact Sheet Somalia[1] Somalia is situated in a place where most of the bordering countries are unstable except Kenya which has also observed post election violence in December 2007. It has border with Djibouti,Kenya, YemenandEthiopia. It has been in midst of a civil war since early nineties, the civil war has disrupted livestock breeding and agriculture which are the main stay of local economy. The major reason of civil war is due to the hidden interests of business community which is benefitting from the prevailing situation and other reason is clan based conflicts which are also at large. There are three main clans â€Å"Daroud, Hawaya and Issak â€Å".Somalia had an invasion from Ethiopian forces in December 2006 but now they have also evacuated but the fight is still going on between Al-Shabab and government forces. Puntland and Somaliland regions have declared themselves to be autonomous of the federal government at Mogadishu. Important statistics are as under: Area 637,667 sq km 246,201 sq miles, semi arid, 2% arable, 1.6% water Total irrigated land 2000 sq km in 2003 Population 9,558,666 (85th[2]) Density 13/sq km (198th) 100% population belongs to Sunni Muslim branch of Islam. GDP-PPP US $ 5.575 Billion (153rd) GDP Per Capita US $ 600 (222nd) Livestock and Agriculture 65 %, Industrial Sector 10% Services Sector 25 % Exports 65% Livestock, remaining fish, hides/leather frankincense (aromatic gum)) etc Foreign Remittances US $ 2 billion/year Internet usage increased 44900% from year 2000 to 2007, highest in Africa Urbanization 8% increase per year, one of the highest in Africa, currently 34 % population lives in cities. Literacy Male: 24%, Female : 36%, 14%, 22% of Somali children are enrolled in Primary schools[3] Executive Summary There had been number of stakeholders working in the field of TVET in Somalia resulting in different policies and guidelines given by the state governments, different organizations and donor agencies according to their own mandate. There was no uniform approach being followed by different organizations working in the field of income generation and TVET activities. I felt the need to have a standardized approach for better delivery in the TVET sector. An in-depth analysis was carried out on Overview of TVET management in Somalia, study of TVET institutions, Management model, a content analysis of UNESCO PEER assisted syllabuses and review of economic sectors and recommendations made after each part of this thesis report on each of these thesis components. , For this purpose I remained in Somalia from 12 Dec 2009 till 23 Dec 2009.Detailed meetings were held to discuss, evaluate and consolidate its finding after interaction with MOE officials, VTC managers, trainers, donors and experts from relevant technical and vocational education sectors. The thesis also discussed in detail valuable contribution made in the TVET field by other stakeholders in Somalia. The existing management system of VTCs was analyzed. A workable management model for a VTC has been worked out for uniform implementation. The TVET curriculum designed by UNESCO-PEER with the help of Italian Government has been recommended to all stakeholders to be adopted as standard syllabi for entire Somalia. Finally overall analyses of the TVET situation in Somalia have been carried out to give recommendations for best possible way for improvement in this field. The need to have overall coordination between all stakeholders for TVET has been highlighted to make any intervention meaningful and effective. It is expected that based on the thesis and the recommendations Somali Education Authorities and key implementation partners regarding the appropriate strategies to be implemented for addressing the most important areas in the field of TVET. PART I 1. BACKGROUND TO THE THESIS AND VISITS TO TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING CENTRES 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in conflict and post conflict areas is a critical component of the socio-economic development programmes as well as a fundamental component of reintegration. Acquisition of livelihood skills results in battling poverty and social exclusion in favour of self-employment. This helps to reduce unemployment, among marginalized population in conflict and post conflict countries. TVET acts for creation of skilled manpower that becomes self-employed and thereafter creates employment opportunities within their enterprises for others. It is within this framework that UNESCO PEER and other stakeholders like Diakonia and SCD has been implementing TVET projects in Somalia with the financial support of partners mainly the EC, SCIDA, Italian and Norwegian Governments. TVET curriculum/syllabi according to the market demand, training of centre managers, instructors and provision of support materials and textbooks to vocational training centres (V TCs) and initiation of standardized assessment and certification are examples of activities undertaken by UNESCO-PEER in Somalia. The syllabi and support materials so far developed have been popular with the users and a number of countries have shown interest to adapt them through the assistance of UNESCO-PEER. Prior to the civil war that culminated in the collapse of the government in 1991, Somalia had functioning technical and vocational institutions in Mogadishu, Merka, Biadoa, Galkayo, Wajid, Kismayu, Bossaso, Burao and Hargeisa that specialized in a range of technical courses and traditional trades at craft and artisan levels. These courses were properly managed by government and the youth joined these institutions and specialized in various courses that enabled them to earn a living. Most of these institutions were, however destroyed or run down during the civil war period. Consequently, the youth who dropped out of school or were never enrolled in schools at all, found themselves helpless without any livelihood skills. This problem was aggravated by returnees who also had no skills. The Ministries of Education in Puntland, Somaliland and Central South Somalia in collaboration with international agencies have played significant rolls in catering for the training needs of the youth and other vulnerable groups. 1.2 PURPOSE The main purpose is to identify and propose the best options in terms of training of youth for improving their livelihood skills through institutional development and income generation activities. The needs assessment of the VTCs was carried out to propose new skills according to the market demand. 1.3 OBJECTIVES i. To review the current approach to delivery of TVET and provide policy advice; ii. Conduct baseline study; iii. To Conduct needs assessment and skills gap analysis; iv. Review existing syllabuses developed by various stakeholders v. To study the management of the one Technical and Vocational Education Centre and on the basis of the findings recommend, the model to be applied to other TVET institutions. 1.4. SCOPE I planned to cover the whole of Somalia for my thesis but due to insecurity in the Central South Somalia, I was not cleared to go there. The research took place in the Puntland State of Somalia (PSS) and Somaliland. The research targeted the Non Formal and technical and vocational Education sub-sector using the IDPS, Refugees, Returnees, pastoral communities and ex militia as research subjects. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE i. It will act as a catalyst for streamlining the TVET sector in Somalia. ii. The need to have better understanding of the ground realities was brought out in the study for better decision making. iii. The requirement to have a coordinated strategy in TVET field has been highlighted. Better coordination between various stakeholders will contribute to optimum utilization of available resources. iv. Will act for capacity building of MOE, VTCs and other stakeholders. 1.6. METHODOLOGY A number of meetings and visits were held with different stakeholders, NGOs and UN agencies working in the field of TVET. This was done in close collaboration with the Somali Ministries of Education at various levels, and other stakeholders involved in Vocational Education. Vocational Training Centers were visited and interaction was carried with their managers, students and trainers to find out their potential, weaknesses and requirement for upgrading and other Livelihood Skills opportunities An assessment of the job market was carried out to find out the livelihood skills required in Somalia. 1.7 VISITS TO TRAINING CENTRES AND MEETINGS WITH STAKE HOLDERS Site visits were arranged by the field staff of UNESCO PEER in consultation with the Ministries of Education in both Somaliland and Puntland. My movement was however, hampered by the adverse security environment, making it difficult to visit such places as Galkayo, in Puntland and Berbera and Burao in Somaliland. Movement in Central South Somalia remained restricted. Site visits were conducted in Bossasso, Hargeisa and Borama as shown in the table below; VISITS AND MEETINGS WITH STAKEHOLDERS REGION PLACE DATES INSTITUTIONS VISITED GAROWE 13-15 Dec 2009 Ministry of Education Garowe VTC PUNTLAND BOSSASSO 16-18 Dec 2009 1. PIDAM- Puntland Institute of Development, Administration and Management 2. Dan Door VTC 3. Bossasso College of Health Sciences 4.East Africa Fishing Factory, Tannery, Radio and Electronic repair shops 5. Telecommunications offices 6. Puntland Hospital SOMALILAND HARGEISA 18-20 Dec 2009 1. Hargeisa Training Institute 2. HAVOYOCO 3.FAO 4.I LO 5. Save the Children Denmark 6.ANDP( Activist Network for Disabled People) 7.ICRA( Islamic Children Refugee Agency BORAMA 20-22 Dec 2009 8.AYODA (AfricaYouth Development Association 9.SOSTA( Somaliland Skills Training Association) 10 Dalphis Furniture Workshop Due to security constraints the following institutions which offer technical and vocational courses could not be visited: i. SIITCO(Scientific Institute and Information Technology College) ii. BVTC( Burao Vocational Training Centre) iii. Candlelight for Health Education and Environment, iv. GAVO NGO Berbera The meeting, which took place with Director of Non Formal Education (NFE) and other officials from the Ministry of Education in Puntland[4] to discuss the TVE, was very productive. The key issues like selection criteria for the trainers and trainees, adoption of standardized curriculum developed by UNESCO-PEER through out Puntland were discussed at length. It was apparent that the government was committed to getting the TVET Policy in place, it had commissioned Save the Children Denmark which had developed a TVET policy for Puntland and Somaliland and once established, future funding by donors would need to be channeled through the MOE for effective planning and quality control by the governments. A similar visit and discussion with the senior management of the Ministry of Education in Somaliland[5] covered the strategy, policy and future planning. Unlike in Puntland, the management of TVET was being managed within institutional framework. In the course of these visits and meetings with other stakeholders, I gained detailed prevailing knowledge about the TVET and Livelihood skills among other aspects of the TVET Outcome of Field Visits to Puntland and Somaliland.  · It was felt that the MOE officials need more capacity building before they can effectively handle or deliver.  · Similarly the VTC managers and trainers though very keen would benefit from additional training and upgrading courses.  · The VTCs need to be improved in every manner, from repairs of buildings to provision of training equipment.  · The trainee students particularly the girls are very keen to proceed with TVET and would like diploma and degree courses to begin as soon as possible.  · The UNESCO-PEER worked curriculum has been adopted by Somaliland with Puntland taking time to implement it due to various constraints. Trainees eager to learn new skills PART II 2 OVERVIEW OF THE MANAGEMENT AND DELIVERY OF TVET 2.1 DEFINITION OF TVET AND BENEFICIARIES According to the Guidelines issued jointly by UNESCO and ILO and adopted by UNESCO General Conference at its 31 Session in 2001 and recommended for implementation by countries according to their socio-economic status, [6]TVET (Technical and vocational education and training) is defined accordingly as â€Å"a study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes related to occupation in various sectors of economic and social life.† It approaches the target beneficiaries to gain quality training which can bring stability and prosperity in their lives through income generation activities. In the Somalia context, the beneficiaries of training for occupational fields, alleviation of poverty and empowerment include; out of school youth due to drop out, demobilized soldiers, returnees, disabled persons, young adults of 18-24 years, girls and women heads of households whose husbands have either fled the country or killed in civil strive, refugees and secondary school leavers. These categories of Somali nationals benefit from interventions organized by international and local non governmental organizations, UN agencies and donor communities 2.2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK IN THE MANAGEMENT OF TVET Organizationally, in both Somaliland and Puntland, TVET is regarded as part and parcel of Non Formal Education and is headed by a Director of Non Formal Education in the same way Formal Education is headed by a Director. It was not possible for me to establish whether similar arrangement exists in Central South Somalia. The TVET institutions in both Somaliland and Puntland are understaffed. Through National and Regional Councils for technical and vocational education training, the units are expected to: i) Plan and coordinate TVE Programmes, monitor supply and demand for goods and services, knowledge and skills in demand and approve new TVE Programmes, ii) Provide a sound financial framework in which TVE costs are shared among the government, industry, community and the trainees; iii) Establish a quality assurance mechanism that should enable the units to direct the following aspects of the TVET programme: Ø Quality admission criteria and standards which should be reviewed and evaluated periodically Ø Acceptable quality of curriculum and teaching materials Ø Acceptable ratio of teaching and training staff to learners Ø Staff qualifications Ø Physical facilities and layout Ø Quality and type of equipment Ø Trainee qualification requirement A theoretical organizational frame work is reflected in the organizational chart below Source; MINISTRY OF EDUCATION IN SOMALILAND[7] The units are constrained by the following factors: * Understaffing of the units makes implementation of the above functions difficult * Management and implementation of TVET is decentralized and left in the hands of various stakeholders including UN agencies, NGOs and Government institutions. The State Governments do not have the resources to run these institutions in an efficient manner. This state of affairs makes the management and control of standards difficult in a situation where implementation may be determined by donor interest. The institutions lack strategies for sustainability. 2.3 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES From the discussions held between me and the Ministries of Education, some UN agencies and international and local NGOs, the following intervention strategies in Somalia were mentioned:[8] Programme proposals are developed by UN agencies and other stakeholders and their viability discussed with the local authorities who sign letters of agreement with the stakeholders defining their respective responsibilities; Multi-sectoral approach, where organizations form themselves into a consortium to implement certain programme activities or UN agencies in strategic partnerships Area-based approach in which local administrators are beneficiaries and act as beneficiaries and implementing partners at the same time Specific capacity building activities with local institutions During the various meetings and discussions, it was observed that no home grown interventions initiated by local authorities and implemented jointly with willing donors. 2.4 TVET DELIVERY STRATEGIES The methods of delivery of TVE in Somaliland and Puntland are still predominantly either IBT, Institutional based training, through full time training in establishments or EBT, Enterprise based training, in business establishments. The main differences being as shown in the table below TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF IBT AND EBT TRAINING MODELS Centre-Based Training Mode Enterprise-Based Training Mode 1. Recruitment of Trainees 2. Training in theory, practical and entrepreneurship (6 Months) 3.Industrial attachment (2 months) and contracts 4.Assessment of skills and products 5.Centre-based Certification 1. Conducting Training needs assessment 2.Designing appropriate syllabus 3. Recruitment and selection of trainees 4. Identification recruitment of host trainers 5. Training (8 Months) 6. Work-based self employment programmes 7. Enterprise-Based Assessment and Certification Source: Summarized from discussions with training management Discussions with some stakeholders and previous studies by UNDP[9] cited the following constraints in the EBT mode of training * It takes too long to conduct needs assessment and design tailor made courses for enterprise-based training * Limited resources and lack of program sustainability on the part of EBT due high cost of machines * Conflict between trainee needs and customer needs, the latter tend to command priority * Limited training capacity in the both personnel and learning space by trainee While institutional based training organized on full time basis requires a lot of resources and may ensure quality training, EBT comes in handy due to tailor made course. Full time institutional training may lock out young adults and working populations that need to study part time. RECOMMENDATIONS I. As a matter of policy , it is recommended that training institutions and the governments in Somalia consider adopting flexible modes of delivery based on part time participation, involving work and training as follows: a) Day release system-in which workers attend an educational or training establishment for agreed period in a week b) Sandwich system where learners-alternate between educational institution and firm, factory or other establishment c) Block release workers are released to attend a specific programme for a specified period. d) Open and distance education programme by correspondence 1. Local authorities in Somalia should be actively involved in designing home grown projects that address local need. 2. The governments and other agencies should work closely with host trainers for better standard of training through financial and material support including training and certification personnel. 3. Due to possible conflict of interest, local personnel who are identified beneficiaries should not act as implementing partners at the same time. PART III 3.0 STUDY OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING CENTRES In order to conduct a base line study of the institutions visited and those which were not visited, a questionnaire was used and covered the following aspects. There was another detailed questioner of 15 pages which was used to collect the data and was sent to Prof Kim for review Name of the institution Number of trainees enrolled in each course Number of instructors in each course Qualification of instructors in each course. Machines available Training aids available New trades in demand New training aids / machines required? Trainees ending the course The employment status of former trainees Water, Electricity, Toilets Overall environment of education within the institutions Political stability, law order and other conditions required for education The majority of TVET centres did not provide the information required partly due to the limited time available to me necessitating obtaining some of the information online. Most of the information requested was not available online from most of the TVET centres but it was possible to obtain the information in the table below on the trades offered in the following institutions; TABLE 3 TVET COURSES OFFERED TVET CENTRE YEAR FOUNDED OWNERSHIP TRADES OFFERED Havoyoco VTC 1998 NGO-Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee formed in 1992 (Havoyoco) Centre- Based Vocational skills training in i) Woodwork (joinery and fitting) ii) Electricity iii) Metal work iv) Masonry v) Computer Studies vi) Garment making vii) Office Management Basic Literacy and Numeracy Enterprise-Based Vocational Training. Amoud Vocational Centre for Agricultural Technology and Environment (AVOCATE) 1998 Government- Ministry of Education i) General agriculture ii) Animal Husbandry iii) Food Processing iv) Marketing Burao Vocational Training Centre 1998 NGO-Candle Light for Health and Education (CLHE) i) Accounting ii) Computer Studies iii) Typing iv) Secretarial Studies v) Plumbing vi) Basic Literacy and Numeracy Berbera Port Vocational Training Centre 1996 Government-Port Authority/ UNDP Port Related Technical Skills i) Cargo handling equipment ii) Power supply and illumination iii) Diesel mechanic iv) Machinist course Other Technical courses i) Motor vehicle mechanic ii) Plumbing and pipe fitting/welding iii) Auto Mobile electrician course iv) General Electrician (house wiring) v) Woodwork vi) Computer hardware and maintenance Office-related Skills i) Secretarial Studies ii) Personnel Management iii) Business Accounting iv) Cost Accounting v) Business Management vi) Computer Applications Dan Dor Vocational Training Centre 2001 NGO-Dan Dor (Direct Aid to Nature Development Organization) i) Woodwork ii) Electricity iii) Metal work iv) Garment making v) Auto Mechanics Bossasso Port Training Centre 1996 Government in conjunction with Bossasso Port Authority i) Financial Accounting I ii) Financial Accounting II iii) Cost accounting II iv) Management Accounting v) Business Mathematics and Statistics vi) Business Law vii) Basic Economics IV viii) Computer Application ix) Management Principles Source: Information gathered from the field[10] The trades offered in the following established training centres are analyzed to illustrate vocational demand for some of the courses offered. TABLE 3.1 SKILLS OFFERED IN HARGEISA AND BOSSASO TECHNICAL INSTITUTES HARGEISA T I BOSSASSO TI Skills offered Skills requested Skills offered Skills requested Syllabuses developed by UNESCO Electricity Automobile repair training Electricity and cooling system Nursing and Midwifery Agriculture Plumbing Metal work fabrication Fisheries Beauty Saloon Basic Accounting II Carpentry Electronic equipment repair Plumbing Masonry Basic Accounting I Masonry Carpentry Computer Studies II Computer/IT painting and Art Computer Studies I Commerce Building and construction Carpentry and Joinery Secretarial Studies Electrical Installation Logistics and Storekeeping Garment Making ICT Hospitality Operations II Garment making Hospitality Operations Masonry Metal Fabrication Plumbing II Plumbing III Source: Data collected during the field visits UNESCO PEER developed syllabuses to meet demand but the following can be observed from this table: 1. According to the need of the market following subjects were developed in the two training institution not covered by UNESCO[11] a) Automobile repair b) Commerce c) Electricity and cooling system d) Fisheries e) Painting and Art 2. There is demand which has not been met in the following fields: a) Nursing and midwifery b) Beauty Salooning 3. In the UNESCO PEER study of 2002[12] demand was expressed for the following fields: a) Business adminstration b) Import Export management c) Vetrinary d) Well Engineering e) Salesmanship f) Natural resources management 4. Demand is determined by the following factors: a) Environment activity; pastorists need vetrinary services, communities near the sea and river valleys require fishing techniques and those in dry and arid areas require well engineering while farming communities will go for Agriculture. b) Skills in the market for formal employment c) Skills for self employment. d) Traditional trades such as carpentry, masonry,electrical installation and garment making seem to enjoy popularity but the new ones are yet to have a foothold in livelihood skills. 5. From the baseline study information received and discussions with stakeholders analyzed, the following situation still prevails in the Sub-sector: a) Somalia is fit for intervention in almost all fields of livelihood and skills development. The best way to intervene is through development of skills through TVET. This is the shortest way to both becoming self earning or getting a job opportunity. b) The TVET centres still lack qualified trainers, training equipment and text books in relevant TVET programmes Some of the available text books are still written in English and due to the low academic level of trainees, they cannot use books effectively while Somali translation versions do not exist c) The standard curriculum developed by UNESCO-PEER needs to be adopted in all VTCs in order to have a common syllabi. It will also help to determine a common grading system and the quality of the grading system will improve. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Planning for higher levels courses needs to be done for enhancing management, administrative and technical skills of the VTC managers and business executives by stakeholders. The following subjects which have been identified as creating skill gaps and which by their very nature should be used in regular full time training institutions be developed by UNESCO PEER which has accumulated experience in this area: a) Business Administration b) Import Export Management c) Veterinary d) Natural Resources Management e) Well Engineering f) Automobile repair g) Commerce h) Salesmanship 3. Issues related to management and inadequate facilities are taken up by institutional managers, who should develop master plans for these institutions with a view to making them sustainable. 4. TVET managers should work out a mechanism for getting some of the textbooks in specified courses translated to facilitate their use by trainees PART IV 4. INVOLVEMENT OF STAKEHOLDERS IN CAPACITY BUILING AND OTHER ACTIVITIES IN SOMALIA. A number of donor organizations, UN agencies and local and international non governmental organizations are active in supporting capacity building and other activities in Somalia. The information summarizes interventions and achievements. Some of the agencies may wish to partner with others for implementation of programmes. Due to time constraint, and insecurity mainly in Central south Somalia, this information was obtained partly online in order to ensure accuracy of what is reported. These activities for these organizations are summarized in the table below and reported in detail after the table. TABLE 4 ORGANIZATIONS ACTIVE IN TVET IN SOMALIA ORGANIZATION PROGRAMME LOCATION TARGET GROUP RESULTS Present status UNDP Recovery and sustainable livelihood program- agriculture based skills CSS in middle Shabelle IDPS 3300 trained in Agriculture and book keeping skill 1350 are in gainful employment Consortium headed by SCD PETT Project Northern Somalia Youth, girls, women and other vulnerable groups 5500 trained in various vocatio Improving Youth Livelihood through Institutional Support Improving Youth Livelihood through Institutional Support Strengthening Technical, Vocational Education and Training Institutions for Improved Livelihood Skills ACRONYMS ANDP Activists Network for Disabled People AYODA Africa Youth Development Association CLHE Candle Light for Health and Education CSS Central and South Somalia DFID Department for International Development DRC Danish Refugee council DRP Disaster Recovery Plan EBT Enterprise- Based Training EC European Commission IAS International Aid Service ICRA Islamic Childrens Rescue agency IBT Institution Based Training IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IICO International Islamic Charitable Organization ILO International Labour Organization IOM International Office of Migration MOE Ministry of Education NFE Non Formal Education NGO Non-Governmental Organization PEER Regional Programme for Education in Emergencies PIDAM Puntland Institute of Development Administration and Management SCD Save the Children, Denmark SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency SOSTA Somali Skills Training Association STEO Skills Training Employment Opportunity TVE Technical and Vocational Education TVET Technical and Vocational Education Training UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Childrens Fund VTC Vocational Training Centre WFL Water for Life WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization US AID US Agency for International Development Fact Sheet Somalia[1] Somalia is situated in a place where most of the bordering countries are unstable except Kenya which has also observed post election violence in December 2007. It has border with Djibouti,Kenya, YemenandEthiopia. It has been in midst of a civil war since early nineties, the civil war has disrupted livestock breeding and agriculture which are the main stay of local economy. The major reason of civil war is due to the hidden interests of business community which is benefitting from the prevailing situation and other reason is clan based conflicts which are also at large. There are three main clans â€Å"Daroud, Hawaya and Issak â€Å".Somalia had an invasion from Ethiopian forces in December 2006 but now they have also evacuated but the fight is still going on between Al-Shabab and government forces. Puntland and Somaliland regions have declared themselves to be autonomous of the federal government at Mogadishu. Important statistics are as under: Area 637,667 sq km 246,201 sq miles, semi arid, 2% arable, 1.6% water Total irrigated land 2000 sq km in 2003 Population 9,558,666 (85th[2]) Density 13/sq km (198th) 100% population belongs to Sunni Muslim branch of Islam. GDP-PPP US $ 5.575 Billion (153rd) GDP Per Capita US $ 600 (222nd) Livestock and Agriculture 65 %, Industrial Sector 10% Services Sector 25 % Exports 65% Livestock, remaining fish, hides/leather frankincense (aromatic gum)) etc Foreign Remittances US $ 2 billion/year Internet usage increased 44900% from year 2000 to 2007, highest in Africa Urbanization 8% increase per year, one of the highest in Africa, currently 34 % population lives in cities. Literacy Male: 24%, Female : 36%, 14%, 22% of Somali children are enrolled in Primary schools[3] Executive Summary There had been number of stakeholders working in the field of TVET in Somalia resulting in different policies and guidelines given by the state governments, different organizations and donor agencies according to their own mandate. There was no uniform approach being followed by different organizations working in the field of income generation and TVET activities. I felt the need to have a standardized approach for better delivery in the TVET sector. An in-depth analysis was carried out on Overview of TVET management in Somalia, study of TVET institutions, Management model, a content analysis of UNESCO PEER assisted syllabuses and review of economic sectors and recommendations made after each part of this thesis report on each of these thesis components. , For this purpose I remained in Somalia from 12 Dec 2009 till 23 Dec 2009.Detailed meetings were held to discuss, evaluate and consolidate its finding after interaction with MOE officials, VTC managers, trainers, donors and experts from relevant technical and vocational education sectors. The thesis also discussed in detail valuable contribution made in the TVET field by other stakeholders in Somalia. The existing management system of VTCs was analyzed. A workable management model for a VTC has been worked out for uniform implementation. The TVET curriculum designed by UNESCO-PEER with the help of Italian Government has been recommended to all stakeholders to be adopted as standard syllabi for entire Somalia. Finally overall analyses of the TVET situation in Somalia have been carried out to give recommendations for best possible way for improvement in this field. The need to have overall coordination between all stakeholders for TVET has been highlighted to make any intervention meaningful and effective. It is expected that based on the thesis and the recommendations Somali Education Authorities and key implementation partners regarding the appropriate strategies to be implemented for addressing the most important areas in the field of TVET. PART I 1. BACKGROUND TO THE THESIS AND VISITS TO TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING CENTRES 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) in conflict and post conflict areas is a critical component of the socio-economic development programmes as well as a fundamental component of reintegration. Acquisition of livelihood skills results in battling poverty and social exclusion in favour of self-employment. This helps to reduce unemployment, among marginalized population in conflict and post conflict countries. TVET acts for creation of skilled manpower that becomes self-employed and thereafter creates employment opportunities within their enterprises for others. It is within this framework that UNESCO PEER and other stakeholders like Diakonia and SCD has been implementing TVET projects in Somalia with the financial support of partners mainly the EC, SCIDA, Italian and Norwegian Governments. TVET curriculum/syllabi according to the market demand, training of centre managers, instructors and provision of support materials and textbooks to vocational training centres (V TCs) and initiation of standardized assessment and certification are examples of activities undertaken by UNESCO-PEER in Somalia. The syllabi and support materials so far developed have been popular with the users and a number of countries have shown interest to adapt them through the assistance of UNESCO-PEER. Prior to the civil war that culminated in the collapse of the government in 1991, Somalia had functioning technical and vocational institutions in Mogadishu, Merka, Biadoa, Galkayo, Wajid, Kismayu, Bossaso, Burao and Hargeisa that specialized in a range of technical courses and traditional trades at craft and artisan levels. These courses were properly managed by government and the youth joined these institutions and specialized in various courses that enabled them to earn a living. Most of these institutions were, however destroyed or run down during the civil war period. Consequently, the youth who dropped out of school or were never enrolled in schools at all, found themselves helpless without any livelihood skills. This problem was aggravated by returnees who also had no skills. The Ministries of Education in Puntland, Somaliland and Central South Somalia in collaboration with international agencies have played significant rolls in catering for the training needs of the youth and other vulnerable groups. 1.2 PURPOSE The main purpose is to identify and propose the best options in terms of training of youth for improving their livelihood skills through institutional development and income generation activities. The needs assessment of the VTCs was carried out to propose new skills according to the market demand. 1.3 OBJECTIVES i. To review the current approach to delivery of TVET and provide policy advice; ii. Conduct baseline study; iii. To Conduct needs assessment and skills gap analysis; iv. Review existing syllabuses developed by various stakeholders v. To study the management of the one Technical and Vocational Education Centre and on the basis of the findings recommend, the model to be applied to other TVET institutions. 1.4. SCOPE I planned to cover the whole of Somalia for my thesis but due to insecurity in the Central South Somalia, I was not cleared to go there. The research took place in the Puntland State of Somalia (PSS) and Somaliland. The research targeted the Non Formal and technical and vocational Education sub-sector using the IDPS, Refugees, Returnees, pastoral communities and ex militia as research subjects. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE i. It will act as a catalyst for streamlining the TVET sector in Somalia. ii. The need to have better understanding of the ground realities was brought out in the study for better decision making. iii. The requirement to have a coordinated strategy in TVET field has been highlighted. Better coordination between various stakeholders will contribute to optimum utilization of available resources. iv. Will act for capacity building of MOE, VTCs and other stakeholders. 1.6. METHODOLOGY A number of meetings and visits were held with different stakeholders, NGOs and UN agencies working in the field of TVET. This was done in close collaboration with the Somali Ministries of Education at various levels, and other stakeholders involved in Vocational Education. Vocational Training Centers were visited and interaction was carried with their managers, students and trainers to find out their potential, weaknesses and requirement for upgrading and other Livelihood Skills opportunities An assessment of the job market was carried out to find out the livelihood skills required in Somalia. 1.7 VISITS TO TRAINING CENTRES AND MEETINGS WITH STAKE HOLDERS Site visits were arranged by the field staff of UNESCO PEER in consultation with the Ministries of Education in both Somaliland and Puntland. My movement was however, hampered by the adverse security environment, making it difficult to visit such places as Galkayo, in Puntland and Berbera and Burao in Somaliland. Movement in Central South Somalia remained restricted. Site visits were conducted in Bossasso, Hargeisa and Borama as shown in the table below; VISITS AND MEETINGS WITH STAKEHOLDERS REGION PLACE DATES INSTITUTIONS VISITED GAROWE 13-15 Dec 2009 Ministry of Education Garowe VTC PUNTLAND BOSSASSO 16-18 Dec 2009 1. PIDAM- Puntland Institute of Development, Administration and Management 2. Dan Door VTC 3. Bossasso College of Health Sciences 4.East Africa Fishing Factory, Tannery, Radio and Electronic repair shops 5. Telecommunications offices 6. Puntland Hospital SOMALILAND HARGEISA 18-20 Dec 2009 1. Hargeisa Training Institute 2. HAVOYOCO 3.FAO 4.I LO 5. Save the Children Denmark 6.ANDP( Activist Network for Disabled People) 7.ICRA( Islamic Children Refugee Agency BORAMA 20-22 Dec 2009 8.AYODA (AfricaYouth Development Association 9.SOSTA( Somaliland Skills Training Association) 10 Dalphis Furniture Workshop Due to security constraints the following institutions which offer technical and vocational courses could not be visited: i. SIITCO(Scientific Institute and Information Technology College) ii. BVTC( Burao Vocational Training Centre) iii. Candlelight for Health Education and Environment, iv. GAVO NGO Berbera The meeting, which took place with Director of Non Formal Education (NFE) and other officials from the Ministry of Education in Puntland[4] to discuss the TVE, was very productive. The key issues like selection criteria for the trainers and trainees, adoption of standardized curriculum developed by UNESCO-PEER through out Puntland were discussed at length. It was apparent that the government was committed to getting the TVET Policy in place, it had commissioned Save the Children Denmark which had developed a TVET policy for Puntland and Somaliland and once established, future funding by donors would need to be channeled through the MOE for effective planning and quality control by the governments. A similar visit and discussion with the senior management of the Ministry of Education in Somaliland[5] covered the strategy, policy and future planning. Unlike in Puntland, the management of TVET was being managed within institutional framework. In the course of these visits and meetings with other stakeholders, I gained detailed prevailing knowledge about the TVET and Livelihood skills among other aspects of the TVET Outcome of Field Visits to Puntland and Somaliland.  · It was felt that the MOE officials need more capacity building before they can effectively handle or deliver.  · Similarly the VTC managers and trainers though very keen would benefit from additional training and upgrading courses.  · The VTCs need to be improved in every manner, from repairs of buildings to provision of training equipment.  · The trainee students particularly the girls are very keen to proceed with TVET and would like diploma and degree courses to begin as soon as possible.  · The UNESCO-PEER worked curriculum has been adopted by Somaliland with Puntland taking time to implement it due to various constraints. Trainees eager to learn new skills PART II 2 OVERVIEW OF THE MANAGEMENT AND DELIVERY OF TVET 2.1 DEFINITION OF TVET AND BENEFICIARIES According to the Guidelines issued jointly by UNESCO and ILO and adopted by UNESCO General Conference at its 31 Session in 2001 and recommended for implementation by countries according to their socio-economic status, [6]TVET (Technical and vocational education and training) is defined accordingly as â€Å"a study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitudes related to occupation in various sectors of economic and social life.† It approaches the target beneficiaries to gain quality training which can bring stability and prosperity in their lives through income generation activities. In the Somalia context, the beneficiaries of training for occupational fields, alleviation of poverty and empowerment include; out of school youth due to drop out, demobilized soldiers, returnees, disabled persons, young adults of 18-24 years, girls and women heads of households whose husbands have either fled the country or killed in civil strive, refugees and secondary school leavers. These categories of Somali nationals benefit from interventions organized by international and local non governmental organizations, UN agencies and donor communities 2.2 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK IN THE MANAGEMENT OF TVET Organizationally, in both Somaliland and Puntland, TVET is regarded as part and parcel of Non Formal Education and is headed by a Director of Non Formal Education in the same way Formal Education is headed by a Director. It was not possible for me to establish whether similar arrangement exists in Central South Somalia. The TVET institutions in both Somaliland and Puntland are understaffed. Through National and Regional Councils for technical and vocational education training, the units are expected to: i) Plan and coordinate TVE Programmes, monitor supply and demand for goods and services, knowledge and skills in demand and approve new TVE Programmes, ii) Provide a sound financial framework in which TVE costs are shared among the government, industry, community and the trainees; iii) Establish a quality assurance mechanism that should enable the units to direct the following aspects of the TVET programme: Ø Quality admission criteria and standards which should be reviewed and evaluated periodically Ø Acceptable quality of curriculum and teaching materials Ø Acceptable ratio of teaching and training staff to learners Ø Staff qualifications Ø Physical facilities and layout Ø Quality and type of equipment Ø Trainee qualification requirement A theoretical organizational frame work is reflected in the organizational chart below Source; MINISTRY OF EDUCATION IN SOMALILAND[7] The units are constrained by the following factors: * Understaffing of the units makes implementation of the above functions difficult * Management and implementation of TVET is decentralized and left in the hands of various stakeholders including UN agencies, NGOs and Government institutions. The State Governments do not have the resources to run these institutions in an efficient manner. This state of affairs makes the management and control of standards difficult in a situation where implementation may be determined by donor interest. The institutions lack strategies for sustainability. 2.3 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES From the discussions held between me and the Ministries of Education, some UN agencies and international and local NGOs, the following intervention strategies in Somalia were mentioned:[8] Programme proposals are developed by UN agencies and other stakeholders and their viability discussed with the local authorities who sign letters of agreement with the stakeholders defining their respective responsibilities; Multi-sectoral approach, where organizations form themselves into a consortium to implement certain programme activities or UN agencies in strategic partnerships Area-based approach in which local administrators are beneficiaries and act as beneficiaries and implementing partners at the same time Specific capacity building activities with local institutions During the various meetings and discussions, it was observed that no home grown interventions initiated by local authorities and implemented jointly with willing donors. 2.4 TVET DELIVERY STRATEGIES The methods of delivery of TVE in Somaliland and Puntland are still predominantly either IBT, Institutional based training, through full time training in establishments or EBT, Enterprise based training, in business establishments. The main differences being as shown in the table below TABLE 3 COMPARISON OF IBT AND EBT TRAINING MODELS Centre-Based Training Mode Enterprise-Based Training Mode 1. Recruitment of Trainees 2. Training in theory, practical and entrepreneurship (6 Months) 3.Industrial attachment (2 months) and contracts 4.Assessment of skills and products 5.Centre-based Certification 1. Conducting Training needs assessment 2.Designing appropriate syllabus 3. Recruitment and selection of trainees 4. Identification recruitment of host trainers 5. Training (8 Months) 6. Work-based self employment programmes 7. Enterprise-Based Assessment and Certification Source: Summarized from discussions with training management Discussions with some stakeholders and previous studies by UNDP[9] cited the following constraints in the EBT mode of training * It takes too long to conduct needs assessment and design tailor made courses for enterprise-based training * Limited resources and lack of program sustainability on the part of EBT due high cost of machines * Conflict between trainee needs and customer needs, the latter tend to command priority * Limited training capacity in the both personnel and learning space by trainee While institutional based training organized on full time basis requires a lot of resources and may ensure quality training, EBT comes in handy due to tailor made course. Full time institutional training may lock out young adults and working populations that need to study part time. RECOMMENDATIONS I. As a matter of policy , it is recommended that training institutions and the governments in Somalia consider adopting flexible modes of delivery based on part time participation, involving work and training as follows: a) Day release system-in which workers attend an educational or training establishment for agreed period in a week b) Sandwich system where learners-alternate between educational institution and firm, factory or other establishment c) Block release workers are released to attend a specific programme for a specified period. d) Open and distance education programme by correspondence 1. Local authorities in Somalia should be actively involved in designing home grown projects that address local need. 2. The governments and other agencies should work closely with host trainers for better standard of training through financial and material support including training and certification personnel. 3. Due to possible conflict of interest, local personnel who are identified beneficiaries should not act as implementing partners at the same time. PART III 3.0 STUDY OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING CENTRES In order to conduct a base line study of the institutions visited and those which were not visited, a questionnaire was used and covered the following aspects. There was another detailed questioner of 15 pages which was used to collect the data and was sent to Prof Kim for review Name of the institution Number of trainees enrolled in each course Number of instructors in each course Qualification of instructors in each course. Machines available Training aids available New trades in demand New training aids / machines required? Trainees ending the course The employment status of former trainees Water, Electricity, Toilets Overall environment of education within the institutions Political stability, law order and other conditions required for education The majority of TVET centres did not provide the information required partly due to the limited time available to me necessitating obtaining some of the information online. Most of the information requested was not available online from most of the TVET centres but it was possible to obtain the information in the table below on the trades offered in the following institutions; TABLE 3 TVET COURSES OFFERED TVET CENTRE YEAR FOUNDED OWNERSHIP TRADES OFFERED Havoyoco VTC 1998 NGO-Horn of Africa Voluntary Youth Committee formed in 1992 (Havoyoco) Centre- Based Vocational skills training in i) Woodwork (joinery and fitting) ii) Electricity iii) Metal work iv) Masonry v) Computer Studies vi) Garment making vii) Office Management Basic Literacy and Numeracy Enterprise-Based Vocational Training. Amoud Vocational Centre for Agricultural Technology and Environment (AVOCATE) 1998 Government- Ministry of Education i) General agriculture ii) Animal Husbandry iii) Food Processing iv) Marketing Burao Vocational Training Centre 1998 NGO-Candle Light for Health and Education (CLHE) i) Accounting ii) Computer Studies iii) Typing iv) Secretarial Studies v) Plumbing vi) Basic Literacy and Numeracy Berbera Port Vocational Training Centre 1996 Government-Port Authority/ UNDP Port Related Technical Skills i) Cargo handling equipment ii) Power supply and illumination iii) Diesel mechanic iv) Machinist course Other Technical courses i) Motor vehicle mechanic ii) Plumbing and pipe fitting/welding iii) Auto Mobile electrician course iv) General Electrician (house wiring) v) Woodwork vi) Computer hardware and maintenance Office-related Skills i) Secretarial Studies ii) Personnel Management iii) Business Accounting iv) Cost Accounting v) Business Management vi) Computer Applications Dan Dor Vocational Training Centre 2001 NGO-Dan Dor (Direct Aid to Nature Development Organization) i) Woodwork ii) Electricity iii) Metal work iv) Garment making v) Auto Mechanics Bossasso Port Training Centre 1996 Government in conjunction with Bossasso Port Authority i) Financial Accounting I ii) Financial Accounting II iii) Cost accounting II iv) Management Accounting v) Business Mathematics and Statistics vi) Business Law vii) Basic Economics IV viii) Computer Application ix) Management Principles Source: Information gathered from the field[10] The trades offered in the following established training centres are analyzed to illustrate vocational demand for some of the courses offered. TABLE 3.1 SKILLS OFFERED IN HARGEISA AND BOSSASO TECHNICAL INSTITUTES HARGEISA T I BOSSASSO TI Skills offered Skills requested Skills offered Skills requested Syllabuses developed by UNESCO Electricity Automobile repair training Electricity and cooling system Nursing and Midwifery Agriculture Plumbing Metal work fabrication Fisheries Beauty Saloon Basic Accounting II Carpentry Electronic equipment repair Plumbing Masonry Basic Accounting I Masonry Carpentry Computer Studies II Computer/IT painting and Art Computer Studies I Commerce Building and construction Carpentry and Joinery Secretarial Studies Electrical Installation Logistics and Storekeeping Garment Making ICT Hospitality Operations II Garment making Hospitality Operations Masonry Metal Fabrication Plumbing II Plumbing III Source: Data collected during the field visits UNESCO PEER developed syllabuses to meet demand but the following can be observed from this table: 1. According to the need of the market following subjects were developed in the two training institution not covered by UNESCO[11] a) Automobile repair b) Commerce c) Electricity and cooling system d) Fisheries e) Painting and Art 2. There is demand which has not been met in the following fields: a) Nursing and midwifery b) Beauty Salooning 3. In the UNESCO PEER study of 2002[12] demand was expressed for the following fields: a) Business adminstration b) Import Export management c) Vetrinary d) Well Engineering e) Salesmanship f) Natural resources management 4. Demand is determined by the following factors: a) Environment activity; pastorists need vetrinary services, communities near the sea and river valleys require fishing techniques and those in dry and arid areas require well engineering while farming communities will go for Agriculture. b) Skills in the market for formal employment c) Skills for self employment. d) Traditional trades such as carpentry, masonry,electrical installation and garment making seem to enjoy popularity but the new ones are yet to have a foothold in livelihood skills. 5. From the baseline study information received and discussions with stakeholders analyzed, the following situation still prevails in the Sub-sector: a) Somalia is fit for intervention in almost all fields of livelihood and skills development. The best way to intervene is through development of skills through TVET. This is the shortest way to both becoming self earning or getting a job opportunity. b) The TVET centres still lack qualified trainers, training equipment and text books in relevant TVET programmes Some of the available text books are still written in English and due to the low academic level of trainees, they cannot use books effectively while Somali translation versions do not exist c) The standard curriculum developed by UNESCO-PEER needs to be adopted in all VTCs in order to have a common syllabi. It will also help to determine a common grading system and the quality of the grading system will improve. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Planning for higher levels courses needs to be done for enhancing management, administrative and technical skills of the VTC managers and business executives by stakeholders. The following subjects which have been identified as creating skill gaps and which by their very nature should be used in regular full time training institutions be developed by UNESCO PEER which has accumulated experience in this area: a) Business Administration b) Import Export Management c) Veterinary d) Natural Resources Management e) Well Engineering f) Automobile repair g) Commerce h) Salesmanship 3. Issues related to management and inadequate facilities are taken up by institutional managers, who should develop master plans for these institutions with a view to making them sustainable. 4. TVET managers should work out a mechanism for getting some of the textbooks in specified courses translated to facilitate their use by trainees PART IV 4. INVOLVEMENT OF STAKEHOLDERS IN CAPACITY BUILING AND OTHER ACTIVITIES IN SOMALIA. A number of donor organizations, UN agencies and local and international non governmental organizations are active in supporting capacity building and other activities in Somalia. The information summarizes interventions and achievements. Some of the agencies may wish to partner with others for implementation of programmes. Due to time constraint, and insecurity mainly in Central south Somalia, this information was obtained partly online in order to ensure accuracy of what is reported. These activities for these organizations are summarized in the table below and reported in detail after the table. TABLE 4 ORGANIZATIONS ACTIVE IN TVET IN SOMALIA ORGANIZATION PROGRAMME LOCATION TARGET GROUP RESULTS Present status UNDP Recovery and sustainable livelihood program- agriculture based skills CSS in middle Shabelle IDPS 3300 trained in Agriculture and book keeping skill 1350 are in gainful employment Consortium headed by SCD PETT Project Northern Somalia Youth, girls, women and other vulnerable groups 5500 trained in various vocatio

Adolescent Suicide Essay -- Death Depression Papers

Adolescent Suicide Joseph Connelly Gazzola used to be a Northeastern University football star. He has since taken his own life, and it has hit everyone he knew very hard. As reported in the Boston Globe, â€Å"Mr. Gazzola, known as Joe, was born and raised in North Attleborough, showing a love of football and a tolerance of all types of people. ‘He didn't care much about differences,’ said his father. ‘He could relate to anyone. He was the kind of kid who could walk with princes and paupers and never see a difference.’† Gazzola is not alone. There have been a numerous suicides on college campuses as well as among teens in the same age bracke. It is a real proble and it is time to take note. On October 7, 1999, a student at Ramapo College killed himself reportedly due to a break up with his girlfriend, similar to what allegedly caused the fourth NYU student, Diana Chein, 19, to commit suicide by jumping from the top of her boyfriend’s apartment building after a break up on March 10, 2004. The cycle of depression and self destruction is apparent in all cases. There have been many instances of suicide that have occurred in the past years at universities across the country, and since it is such a sensitive subject, there have not been nearly enough coverage as this topic deserves, considering this issue does not seem to be going away. When collecting data about suicide statistics, the age range is broken down as people ages 15-24, which spans most developmental years. Within this bracket are college-age students and this age-group has by far the most troubling statistics around it. In a study released by Brown University, their psychology department shed some light on common myths and facts surrounded suicide. These m... ...s there is a higher awareness level,† said Hayes. â€Å"There are still far too many suicides but now they are much better prepared.† When Gazzola died at NU, the counseling center team dealt with Gazzola’s teammates, roommates, and friends who were left bewildered at this misfortune. Also, with Northeastern’s less than perfect record this academic year, the unfortunate deaths of James Grabowski during the Super Bowl riots (although he wasn’t an NU student, his brother is), and Walter Dedrick found dead in his apartment, (still unexplainable) for example are just a few disasters that demonstrate just how real the problems are and that something needs to be done. It is time for everyone to step up and pay attention to the people around you. Some may not even realize they have a problem, but you can end up making all the difference to a friend in need if you are aware. Adolescent Suicide Essay -- Death Depression Papers Adolescent Suicide Joseph Connelly Gazzola used to be a Northeastern University football star. He has since taken his own life, and it has hit everyone he knew very hard. As reported in the Boston Globe, â€Å"Mr. Gazzola, known as Joe, was born and raised in North Attleborough, showing a love of football and a tolerance of all types of people. ‘He didn't care much about differences,’ said his father. ‘He could relate to anyone. He was the kind of kid who could walk with princes and paupers and never see a difference.’† Gazzola is not alone. There have been a numerous suicides on college campuses as well as among teens in the same age bracke. It is a real proble and it is time to take note. On October 7, 1999, a student at Ramapo College killed himself reportedly due to a break up with his girlfriend, similar to what allegedly caused the fourth NYU student, Diana Chein, 19, to commit suicide by jumping from the top of her boyfriend’s apartment building after a break up on March 10, 2004. The cycle of depression and self destruction is apparent in all cases. There have been many instances of suicide that have occurred in the past years at universities across the country, and since it is such a sensitive subject, there have not been nearly enough coverage as this topic deserves, considering this issue does not seem to be going away. When collecting data about suicide statistics, the age range is broken down as people ages 15-24, which spans most developmental years. Within this bracket are college-age students and this age-group has by far the most troubling statistics around it. In a study released by Brown University, their psychology department shed some light on common myths and facts surrounded suicide. These m... ...s there is a higher awareness level,† said Hayes. â€Å"There are still far too many suicides but now they are much better prepared.† When Gazzola died at NU, the counseling center team dealt with Gazzola’s teammates, roommates, and friends who were left bewildered at this misfortune. Also, with Northeastern’s less than perfect record this academic year, the unfortunate deaths of James Grabowski during the Super Bowl riots (although he wasn’t an NU student, his brother is), and Walter Dedrick found dead in his apartment, (still unexplainable) for example are just a few disasters that demonstrate just how real the problems are and that something needs to be done. It is time for everyone to step up and pay attention to the people around you. Some may not even realize they have a problem, but you can end up making all the difference to a friend in need if you are aware.

How to Become a Professional Nurse Essay

Becoming a professional nurse, a nurse must self-regulation with knowledge to practice standards and code of ethics. One of the first stepping stone is reflecting in journal of experiential learning. â€Å"Knowledge of yourself is gained from reflecting on your experience† (Cooper, 2001, p. 22). In the course Development of self as nurse I have learned how to be a professional nurse practicing the standards and code of ethics in a working environment. Also how the tools of communication is affective towards patients. When walking into a patient’s room for the first time, a Nurse is expected to examine the patients view and to provide the best quality of care. Personally I found the lesson Way of Knowing most engaging to learn because it teaches a nurse student how to approach the patient and communicate with them. There are many different types of ways of knowing which are empirical, ethical, aesthetical, personal and emancipatory. I found this topic most interesting because each one creates the principle and foundation of patient care. During one of the group activities we read a case study of a patient’s chart and discussed her condition and how we would approach and make a connection to her. This made me feel engaged to the subject as if I was standing next to the patient’s bed. Professionalism is one of many characteristic of being a nurse, with a responsibility of their actions, attitude and display the code of conduct to provide the best practice. How the media views affect nurses image has a negative impact on the professionalism aspect of nursing. In this activity we pulled pictures off of the internet of nurses and most were Halloween costumes or cartoons and we discussed how this affects the perspective of professional nurse. I found this most engaging because all the images of nurses on the internet are not what nurses thrive for in a professional view. A professional nurse is responsible for self regulation and to follow the code of ethics, this topic I was least engaged. Reading history of nursing creates an understanding of the past to enhance the present and is the foundation of structure with economics, consumer demand, family structure, science and technology, demography and the women movement. Without an activity and just reading about history of nursing I was least engaged with this topic. The most important lesson I have learned in Development of Self as Nurse is human relationships regarding the tools of communication and ethic, values regarding beliefs, attitude and spirit. Verbal, nonverbal, electronical, interpersonal, and therapeutic are tools of communication. I believe these two concepts are important to my personal development as a professional nurse by understanding the principle of providing proper socialisation processes which starts by approaching, communicating and connecting to a patient creating a positive patient-centered environment. â€Å"Sometimes a patient will tell us something over a cup of tea that may seem trivial, but that we can use to help make their stay more comfortable. † says Julie Thompson, Head Nurse of Burton Hospital. â€Å"Relative feedback that suggested nurses over look the little things that can make a huge difference. The Initiatives are small, but they are having a big impact. † Finding time to sit down with a patient and talk breaks down the barrier between the professional and patient enables real dialogue to take place (Friend, B. , 2013). In order to understand others beliefs, morals and values a professional nursing must have knowledge of one self. â€Å"Therefore, understanding oneself results in ethical practice. Applying this practice when a patient is uncertain about their values by helping them clarify their values by listing alternative, examine possible consequences of choice, choose freely and feels good about the choice. Kozier et al (2010), p. 75 Various forms of communication are practiced by having knowledge of interpersonal skills and professional communication. Using the tools of communication influences effective communication skills, a professional attitude, respect and dignity. Expectations and issues can become present when communicating with patients or other health care professionals. I am wondering how to overcome situations where an issue has occurred during communication with a patient and how to practice standard procedures to solve the issues, different influences including gender, culture, and illness. Nonverbal communication can be expressed such as a gesture or touch and is crucial to nurse-patient relationship. This often shows how a person is feeling then what is actually said. â€Å"Research shows that touch is the best way to comfort, generally from the shoulder down to the hand is the only acceptable areas for touch professionally. † Chillot, R. (2013). Many facts influence effective communication and I question how to apply and gain effective interpersonal skills? Having knowledge of critical thinking is very important in the role of nursing which identifies awareness of personal thinking skills and styles. Always asking yourself in any situation or scenario why? What else? And what if? This leads me to question how to apply critical thinking from the classroom to practice. Turning errors into learning opportunities is the key to skill development in critical thinking. Throughout the course Development of self as nurse I believe it has taught me how to figure out my own morals, values and beliefs and to successes in helping others to find theirs. Tools of communication open up a range of affective nurse-patient relationship and professional environment.

The Roles of Queens, Drones and Worker Honey Bees

The Roles of Queens, Drones and Worker Honey Bees Honey bees are social creatures that enlist a caste system to accomplish the tasks that ensure the survival of the colony. Thousands of worker bees, all sterile females, assume responsibility for feeding, cleaning, nursing, and defending the group. Male drones live to mate with the queen, who is the only fertile female in the colony.   The Queen The queen bee is the dominant,  adult female bee that is the mother of most, if not all the bees in the hive. A future queen bees larva is selected by worker bees to be nourished with a protein-rich secretion known as royal  jelly so that it can sexually mature.   A newly hatched queen begins her life in a duel to the death with any other queens present in the colony and must destroy potential rivals that have not yet hatched. Once she accomplishes this, she takes her virgin mating flight. Throughout her life, she lays eggs and secretes a pheromone that keeps all other females in the colony sterile. Drones A drone is a male bee that is the product of an unfertilized egg. Drones have bigger eyes and lack stingers. They cannot help defend the hive and they  do not have the body parts to collect pollen or nectar, so they cannot contribute to feeding the community. The drones only job is to mate with the queen. Mating occurs in flight, which accounts for the need of the drones for better vision, which is provided by their large eyes. Should a drone succeed in mating, he soon dies because the penis and associated abdominal tissues are ripped from the drones body after sexual intercourse. In the fall in areas with colder winters, worker bees mind the food stores and prevent drones from entering the hive since they are no longer needed, effectively starving them to death. Workers Worker bees are female. They accomplish every chore unrelated to reproduction, which is left up to the queen bee. In their first days, workers tend to the queen. For the remainder of their short lives (just a single month), workers keep busy. Newly hatched worker bees are larvae, unable to feed themselves. Worker bees feed their larvae a liquid called worker jelly, and they eat as many as 800 times a day to build up fat stores. After eight or nine days, larval worker bees spin cocoons and enter the pupal stage. Three weeks later, fully-formed worker bees chew through their cocoons; just a few hours later theyre ready to go to work. There are many jobs for workers to do, such as preserving  honey, feeding drones, building the honeycomb, storing pollen, removing the dead, foraging for food and nectar, carrying in water, fanning the hive to maintain the proper temperature, and guarding the hive against invaders such as wasps. Worker bees also make the decision, when necessary, to relocate the colony in a swarm  and then rebuild the new nest. Maintaining proper temperature for the hive is crucial for the survival of the eggs and larvae. The brood chamber for the bees young must remain at a steady temperature to incubate the eggs. If it is too hot, the workers collect water and deposit it around the hive, then fan the air with their wings causing cooling by evaporation. If it is too cold, the worker bees cluster to generate body heat.

Why Homeschooling Is on the Rise

Why Homeschooling Is on the Rise Homeschooling is an educational choice surrounded by many myths and misconceptions. Even though this method continues to provide high national test scores and well-rounded, diversely educated children, many people still do not see the virtue of the choice. They often have preconceived notions about what goes on in homeschooling. History and Background of Homeschooling Homeschooling is defined as instruction in an educational program outside of established schools. Homeschooling  dates back to the 1960s with a counter-culture movement that soon fizzled out. The movement was rekindled in the 1970s after the Supreme Court upheld the decision that removing school prayer was not unconstitutional. This decision sparked the Christian movement to homeschool although, at the time, it was illegal in 45 states. Laws slowly changed, and by 1993 homeschooling was recognized as a parent’s right in all 50 states. (Neal, 2006) As people continue to see the benefits, the numbers continue to grow. In 2007, the U.S. Department of Education reported that the number of homeschooling students had climbed from 850,000 in 1999 to 1.1 million in 2003. (Fagan, 2007) Reasons People Homeschool As a homeschooling mother of two I am frequently asked why I homeschool. I believe that Mariette Ulrich (2008) best summed up the reasons why people homeschool when she said: I prefer to make those [educational] choices myself. Not because I think I know ‘better’ than all those professional educators, but I do think I know my own children best, and consequently which programs and methods would benefit them. Homeschooling is not about rejecting other people and things; it’s about making personal and positive choices for your own family. (1) While statistics do not show that violence is on the rise, it is hard to ignore stories in the news relating violent school events on a regular basis. Because of these perceptions of school violence, it isn’t difficult to understand why some parents want to educate their children at home. However, this is sometimes viewed as an attempt to shelter their children. Homeschoolers understand that sheltering their children would not do any good. They will still be exposed to the violence in the world through other mediums. Nevertheless, homeschooling does help to keep them safe by keeping them away from the current trend of school violence. While school violence is now a leading factor in many parents’ decisions there are many different reasons for choosing to homeschool. The statistics state that: 31.2 percent of home-schooling parents say that â€Å"concern about the environment of other schools† was their primary reason for home instruction16.5 percent stated â€Å"dissatisfaction with the academic instruction in other schools†29.8 percent said â€Å"to provide religious or moral instruction†6.5 percent was â€Å"because the child has a physical or mental health problem†7.2 percent said â€Å"because the child has other special needs†8.8 percent gave â€Å"other reasons† (Fagan, 2007). For my family it was a combination of the first three reasons- academic dissatisfaction being top- along with specific incidents that led us to decide to homeschool. How Homeschooled Students Perform Academically People might have their own preconceived ideas about who exactly homeschools. Homeschoolers initially consisted of white, middle-class, and/or religious fundamentalist families, but is no longer limited to this group. (Greene Greene, 2007) In fact, the number of African American homeschoolers has steadily grown in recent years.  (Black, 2006,) You can understand why when looking at national statistics. A significant discovery in the study Strengths of Their Own: Home Schoolers Across America stated that there was no difference in homeschooling scores based on the student’s race, and that scores for both minority and white students in grades k-12 averaged in the 87th percentile. (Klicka, 2006) This statistic is in sharp contrast to the public school systems where 8th grade white students score in th e 57th percentile on average, while blacks and Hispanic students score in the 28th percentile in reading alone. (Klicka, 2006) Statistics do not speak favorably only about minorities but all students who homeschool, regardless of their demographics. The study â€Å"Strengths of Their Own: Home Schoolers Across America† completed in 1997, included 5,402 students that homeschool. The study verified that on average, homeschoolers were performing higher than their public school equivalent â€Å"by 30 to 37 percentile points in all subjects.† (Klicka, 2006) This seems to be the case in all studies performed on homeschoolers; however, due to the lack of standard test practices in each state and no unbiased collection of these scores, it is hard to determine the exact average score for homeschooling families. In addition to flourishing standardized test scores, many homeschool students also have the benefit of fulfilling graduation requirements and going to college earlier. This is attributed to flexible nature of homeschooling.  (Neal, 2006) Studies have also been made to compare homeschool and public school settings in cases of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders. The studies showed that homeschooling parents provided educational settings yielding more â€Å"academic engaged time (AET)† in comparison to the public school settings, making homeschooling more beneficial for the child’s development and learning. (Duvall, 2004) Due to this increase in academic performance it is no wonder that colleges are attempting to recruit more homeschoolers because of their high test scores coupled with their self-discipline for completing work. In an article sent around to college personnel about the benefits of making special efforts to recruit homeschoolers Greene and Green say, â€Å"We believe that the homeschool population represents fertile ground for college enrollment efforts, consisting as it does of many bright students with a wide array of educational, personal, and family experiences.†Ã‚   Homeschool Teacher Qualifications Beyond the statistics, when someone talks about homeschooling, usually two points come up. The first is whether the parent is qualified to teach their child, and the second and possibly biggest question asked of  homeschoolers everywhere is about socialization. Qualification is a big concern because opponents of homeschooling believe that parents do not have the ability to teach children like a certified teacher does. I do agree that teachers have accreditation beyond what typical homeschooling parents do, but I also believe that parents have the ability to teach a child any class that they would need, especially in the elementary years. Children have an ability in homeschool that is not available to them in a traditional classroom. If a student has a question in class, it might not be the appropriate time to ask the question, or the teacher might be too busy to answer. However, in homeschool if a child has a question, time can be taken to answer the question or look up the answer if it is unknown. No one all of the answers, not even teachers; after all they are human as well. Dave Arnold of the National Education Association (NEA) stated, â€Å"You would think that they might leave this- the shaping of their children’s minds, careers, and futures- to trained professionals.† (Arnold, 2008) Why would it make more sense to leave these important factors in a child’s life to a person who with be with him for only a year? Why leave those factors to someone  who does not have time to develop the child’s strengths and weaknesses and provide one-on-one time with him? After all even Albert Einstein was homeschooled. However, there are resources for parents who aren’t confident about teaching higher level classes. Some options include: online or correspondence coursesco-opscommunity college classes (Fagan, 2007) With these classes- usually utilized in math or science but available in all subjects- students have the benefit of a teacher knowledgeable in the subject. Tutoring and access to the teacher for specific help are usually available.   While I do disagree with the statement that parents are not qualified to teach their children, I believe that there should be end of year testing. This requirement is on a state to state guideline, and I believe that it should be made mandatory so that a parent can prove that homeschooling is effective for her child. If public school children are required to take these tests, then so should homeschoolers. Virginia law states that all families must register [with their local school district] on a per yearly basis and submit results of professional standardized testing scores (similar to SOL) although there is an option of â€Å"religious exemption† that does not require any end of year testing. (Fagan, 2007) The study â€Å"Strengths of Their Own: Home Schoolers Across America† also found that students ranged in the 86th percentile â€Å"regardless of state regulation,† whether a state had no regulations or a large amount of regulations. (Klicka, 2006, p. 2) These statistics show that state regulations on testing, on what degree of certification a parent has (which can range from no high school diploma to certified teacher to holder of a non-relational bachelors degree), and compulsory attendance laws all have no significance in regards to scores achieved on tests. Homeschool Student Socialization Finally the biggest concern among  those questioning or outright opposed to homeschooling is socialization. Socialization is defined as : â€Å"1. To place under government or group ownership or control. 2. To make fit for companionship with others; make sociable. 3. To convert or adapt to the needs of society.† The first definition is not applicable to education but the second and third are worth looking into. People believe that kids need socialization with other children in order for them to be productive members of society. I completely agree with that. I believe if you have a child who is homeschooled and is rarely in public, interacting with others, then I agree that you will have a problem with that child in years to come. That is just common sense. However, I do not believe socializing is fitting in with other children their own ages that have no moral compass, no sense of right, or wrong and no respect for teachers and authority figures. When children are young and impressionable, it is hard for them to tell which children to steer clear of, often until it is too late. This is where peer pressure comes into play, and children want to mimic their peer group’s behavior in order to fit in and receive group acceptance. Dave Arnold of the NEA also speaks about one specific website that says not to worry about socialization. He says, â€Å"If this website encouraged homeschooled children to join after-school clubs at the local school, or participate in sports or other community activities, then I might feel different. Maine state laws, for example, require local school districts to allow home-schooled students to participate in their athletic programs† (Arnold, 2008, p. 1). There are two problems with his statement. The first untruth is that most homeschoolers dont want to participate in elementary and high school sports like this. There arent legal requirements in each state allowing them to so in states without laws it is based on the individual school board. The problem with this is that school boards sometimes do not allow homeschoolers to participate in their organized sports, whether due to lack of funding or discrimination. The second untruth in his statement is that homeschoolers do encourage these types of activities. Homeschoolers in general know that their children need interaction with other children (of all age ranges not just specific to their own grade) and do everything possible to ensure their children receive this. This comes in the form of: team sportsco-ops (groups of homeschoolers who get together weekly to exchange classes to allow for socialization and taking advantage of the parents’ strong teaching points)support groups (homeschoolers that get together on a regular basis for the children to play or participate in activities such as bowling or roller skating)clubs such as 4H  and scoutslessons such as dance and karate. Many  public libraries, museums, gyms and other community groups and businesses offer programs and classes, catering to the growing number of homeschoolers. (Fagan, 2007) This usually allows more avenues for education as well as opportunities for homeschooling families to get together. Socialization is a very important aspect in every child’s life. However, homeschool graduates that have been exposed to these avenues of socialization have shown just as much ability to survive in and contribute to society as their public school counterparts. Homeschooling is a viable option to those who feel that their children aren’t learning enough, are falling prey to peer pressure, or are exposed or susceptible to too much violence in school. Homeschooling has statistically proven over time that it is a method of education that succeeds with test scores surpassing those in public schools. Homeschool graduates have proven themselves in the college arena and beyond. The questions of qualification and socialization are often argued, but as you can see have no solid facts to stand on. As long as the test scores of those students whose parents are not certified teachers remains higher than public school children, no one can argue for higher qualification regulations. Even though the socialization of homeschoolers does not fit in the standard box of a public classroom setting, it is proven to be just as effective if not better in providing quality (not quantity) socializing opportunities. The results speak for themselves in the long run. I am often asked why I homeschool.  There are so many answers to this question- dissatisfaction with public schools, safety, the state of society today, lack of religion and morals- that I would end up going on and on. However, I think my feelings are summed up in the popular phrase, â€Å"I’ve seen the village, and I don’t want it raising my child.† References Arnold, D. (2008, February 24). Home schools run by well-meaning amateurs: schools with good teachers are best-suited to shape young minds. National Education Association. Retrieved March 7, 2006, from nea.org/espcolumns/dv040220.html Black flight- to homeschool (2006, March-April). Practical Homeschooling 69. 8(1). Retrieved March 2, 2006, from Gale database. Duvall, S., Delaquadri, J., Ward D. L. (2004, Wntr). A preliminary investigation of the effectiveness of homeschool instructional environments for student with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. School Psychological Review, 331; 140(19). Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Gale database. Fagan, A. (2007, November 26) Teach your children well; with new resources, home-schooling numbers grow (page one)(special report). The Washington Times, A01. Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Gale database. Greene, H. Greene, M. (2007, August). There’s no place like home: as the homeschool population grows, college and universities must increase enrollment efforts targeted to this group (Admissions). University Business, 10.8, 25(2). Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Gale database. Klicka, C. (2004, October 22). Academic statistics on homeschooling. HSLDA. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from www.hslda.org Neal, A. (2006, September-October) Excelling in and out of the home, homeschooled kids are thriving across the country. Students demonstrating exceptional academic honors are capturing top slots at national competitions. Saturday Evening Post, 278.5, 54(4). Retrieved March 2, 2008, from Gale database. Ulrich, M. (2008, January) Why I homeschool: (because people keep asking). Catholic Insight, 16.1. Retrieved March 2, 2008 from Gale database. Updated by  Kris Bales

AIDS and YOU (May 1987) Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers

AIDS and YOU (May 1987) Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers AIDS and YOU (May 1987) By Martin H. Goodman MD (this essay is in the public domain) Introduction: AIDS is a life and death issue. To have the AIDS disease is at present a sentence of slow but inevitable death. I've already lost one friend to AIDS. I may soon lose others. My own sexual behavior and that of many of my friends has been profoundly altered by it. In my part of the country, one man in 10 may already be carrying the AIDS virus. While the figures may currently be less in much of the rest of the country, this is changing rapidly. There currently is neither a cure, nor even an effective treatment, and no vaccine either. But there are things that have been PROVEN immensely effective in slowing the spread of this hideously lethal disease. In this essay I hope to present this information. History and Overview: AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Defficiency Disease. It is caused by a virus. The disease originated somewhere in Africa about 20 years ago. There it first appeared as a mysterious ailment afflicting primarily heterosexuals of both sexes. It probably was spread especially fast by primarily female prostitutes there. AIDS has already become a crisis of STAGGERING proportions in parts of Africa. In Zaire, it is estimated that over twenty percent of the adults currently carry the virus. That figure is increasing. And what occurred there will, if no cure is found, most likely occur here among heterosexual folks. AIDS was first seen as a disease of gay males in this country. This was a result of the fact that gay males in this culture in the days before AIDS had an average of 200 to 400 new sexual contacts per year. This figure was much higher than common practice among heterosexual (straight) men or women. In addition, it turned out that rectal sex was a particularly effective way to transmit the disease, and rectal sex is a common practice among gay males. For these reasons, the disease spread in the gay male population of this country immensely more quickly than in other populations. It became to be thought of as a "gay disease". Because the disease is spread primarily by exposure of ones blood to infected blood or semen, I.V. drug addicts who shared needles also soon were identified as an affected group. As the AIDS epidemic began to affect increasingly large fractions of those two populations (gay males and IV drug abusers), many of the rest of this society looked on smugly, for both populations tended to be despised by the "mainstream" of society here. But AIDS is also spread by heterosexual sex. In addition, it is spread by blood transfusions. New born babies can acquire the disease from infected mothers during pregnancy. Gradually more and more "mainstream" folks got the disease. Most recently, a member of congress died of the disease. Finally, even the national news media began to join in the task of educating the public to the notion that AIDS can affect everyone. Basic medical research began to provide a few bits of information, and some help. The virus causing the disease was isolated and identified. The AIDS virus turned out to be a very unusual sort of virus. Its genetic material was not DNA, but RNA. When it infected human cells, it had its RNA direct the synthesis of viral DNA. While RNA viruses are not that uncommon, very few RNA viruses reproduce by setting up the flow of information from RNA to DNA. Such reverse or "retro" flow of information does not occur at all in any DNA virus or any other living things. Hence, the virus was said to belong to the rare group of virues called "Retro Viruses". Research provided the means to test donated blood for the presence of the antibodies to the virus, astronomically reducing the chance of ones getting AIDS from a blood transfusion. This was one of the first real breakthroughs. The same discoveries that allowed us to make our blood bank blood supply far safer also allowed us to be able to tell (in most cases) whether one has been exposed to the AIDS virus using a